以下内容不是机经，是根据机经找到的相关材料，作为背景知识补充，请认真阅读

相关阅读：

1.Red Seaweeds

Red seaweeds have had a more diverse evolution than the green and the brown. Many species cannot stand desiccation and dominate the inter-tidal rock pools. Others tolerate desiccation, such as the purple laver which can often be seen stretched out like a dry black film over mussle beds on rocky beaches.

Red seaweeds such as Polysiphonia lanosa are epiphytes, these are plants that grow on other plants for physical support. In this case the epiphyte benefits from the host’s buoyancy lifting it closer to the sunlight.

The red colour of the seaweeds is due to the larger amount of red phycoblin pigments overriding the green pigment chlorophyll.

The pigments that colour it red have a purpose, enabling the seaweeds to photosynthesis light from a specific part of the light spectrum. Within the group of phycoblins two pigments are of importance phycoerythrin and phycocyanin. Phycoerythrin absorbs green, yellow and red light while phycocyanin absorbs blue, green and yellow light. These parts of the spectrum are the type of light that penetrates the deepest in sea water. The red pigments absorb the light but chlorophyll is still required to process it. This method allows red seaweed to survive in low light conditions where green seaweeds could not.

The light intensity has an affect on the red pigments which is reflected in the colour of the seaweeds. With high light levels the pigment starts to break down, the seaweeds becoming pink or even bleached white. With low levels pigment production is stepped up producing really red plants.

相关阅读2 European economy   andagriculture in 11th century

This age marked Europe’s true Renaissance (for all the ambiguity of the word) two or three hundred years before the traditional Renaissance of the fifteenth century.

相关阅读3 Alfred Stieglitz

Early in the twentieth century a new spirit appeared in American life… It was a spirit of change, of dissent–in some minds, the spirit even of revolution. Predominantly it was an upsurge of hopefulness. New directions seemed possible not only in politics and the arts, but also in the quality of life as a whole. Institutions and established ways were subjected to a critical scrutiny that had been rare in the previous generation… Experiment replaced acquiescence to a received tradition as defined by genteel ‘custodians of culture.’
–Alan Trachtenberg
Critics of Culture: Literature and Society in the Early 20th Century

This “new spirit” is perhaps more pertinent to a biography of Alfred Stieglitz than to the life and work of any of his contemporaries working in the arts. The span of Alfred Stieglitz’s life, 1864 to 1946, saw some of the most rapid and radical transformations ever to occur in the landscape of American society and culture. Stieglitz witnessed New York transform from a sleeping giant of cobblestone streets and horse-drawn trolleys to a vibrant symbol of the modern metropolis, with soaring skyscrapers becoming visible emblems of a new age. Alfred Stieglitz’s seminal role as artist and art impresario at a time when American culture was redefining its fundamental ways of seeing, thinking and experiencing the world is the subject of the first full-length film biography of the photographer “Alfred Stieglitz – The Eloquent Eye.” The time is ripe for a major reevaluation of Stieglitz as a photographer, a seminal influence in the arts of the first decades of the century, and as an important interpreter of the emerging modern culture. There is a need to free Stieglitz from the myths–pro and con–that have engulfed him. Stieglitz’s own photographs, and the wide influence of his ideas and activity on photographers, artists, writers and art institutions in the first four decades of the century, define him as a singular shaping force for a new American vision of the arts and culture.

The body of photography that represents Stieglitz’s achievement as an artist was appraised by fellow photographer Edward Steichen as “like none ever made by any other photographer.” The film not only presents some of the most famous Stieglitz pictures, such as “The Terminal”, “The Steerage” and the O’Keeffe portraits, but will give viewers a rare opportunity to see some of the impressive lesser-known photographs, from early images of European peasant life to the late views of New York’s skyscrapers seen from Stieglitz’s window. Stieglitz’s portraits of artists and friends from the ‘291’ period and the subsequent galleries comprise a beautiful and moving record of many of the key figures in Stieglitz’s life and in the art world of the time. By choosing striking and representative images from the different phases of Stieglitz’s career, the film reveals the evolution of Stieglitz as an artist who chronicled the transformation of American society. The strong photographic values regarding subject, composition, tone et. al. formulated early in Stieglitz’s career can be perceived throughout these phases. Some of the great works in the history of modern photography–many made by Stieglitz’s close associates such as Frank Eugene, Clarence H. White and Edward Steichen–will also be shown as the story of modern photography’s history unfolds.

An examination of the evolution of modern photography and of the impact of the medium on the American sensibility opens a window onto many crucial cultural developments of the time. By examining the creative output of the period and the public’s response to it, the photographs become both gauge and index of the public’s and the artists’ responses to the changes going on around them. One can examine the ascendance of the machine, the explosion of urbanization, changes in social attitudes and mores, and the drive for an indigenous modern American culture–all of which often involved a growing tension between the prescriptions of commerce and culture. America also began a new relationship with Europe in which this country was no longer regarded as an isolated anomaly in relation to the rest of Western civilization. As one can see, Stieglitz’s involvement in this dialogue between artist and culture was central enough for cultural historian Bram Dijkstra to write that “it was Stieglitz who… provided the essential example of the means by which the artist could reach out to a new, more accurate mode of representing the world of experience.”

相关阅读4： bats and their roosts

Bat Roosts

The place a bat lives is called its roost. Bats need different roosting condition at different times of the year, and will often move around on a regular basis to find the condition that meets their needs.

In summer, for example, female bats need warm safe places to have their babies. These are called maternity roosts. In winter, when bats go into hibernation, they need a cooler, constant temperature and so often move into underground sites, such as caves. Find out more about the yearly cycle of a bat.

All UK bats eat insects, and so roosts should be near good foraging habitats, such as pasture, woodlands or water.

Bats also need to be able to travel safely between their roost and foraging habitat. Bats navigate in the dark using a sonar system called echolocation, which requires objects for their calls to bounce off, so roosts tend to be near things such as hedgerows, treelines, or rivers, which allow them to travel more safely. Open spaces are more dangerous for bats, as it leaves them open to predation.

Bats have been discovered roosting in all sorts of places, but there are three broad roost types that are the most common.

Built structures

All our British bat species will make use of buildings on occasion, but for some species, buildings are essential as roost sites. This situation has arisen over a long period of time as tree cover and availability of caves which would have provided natural roost sites have become scarce and long ago bat species adapted to share our built structures, whether it be older properties, modern houses, bridges, barns or churches.

• How and when do bats use buildings?
• Bats and churches

Trees

Around three quarters of British bat species are known to roost in trees. The remaining species could also use trees but because of a lack of suitable and available habitat many bats choose to favour man-made structures.

Trees provide bats with adequate shelter and attract a diverse range of insect species for them to feed on. Since bats are not able to bore holes or make nests they will use whatever gaps are made available to them by other animals or by the natural decay of the wood or from arboricultural methods.

Bats may use different parts of the tree depending on time of the year and temperature and for different reasons. For example in the summer they may use the higher canopy sites to have their young in warmer temperatures but in winter may go deeper and lower into the tree.

Species of tree such as oak, beech and ash are particularly suitable but any tree has potential for a bat roost if there are hollows in the trunk or in branches, woodpecker holes, loose bark, cracks, splits, thick ivy and root cavities. It is hard to locate a tree roost especially when looking from the ground so when planning to fell or prune a tree expert advice is required.

Underground Sites

Bats hibernate where they are less likely to be disturbed by light, noise and predators in underground sites including caves, mines, cellars, and service tunnels. Such sites are often referred to as hibernacula and provide the optimum humidity and stable low temperature which the bats require during the winter. Some bats also use underground roosts during the night in summer for feeding or for mating. Of all UK species, greater and lesser horsehoe bats rely most heavily on caves for roost sites.

相关阅读5

Literary realism most often refers to the trend, beginning with certain works of nineteenth-century French literature and extending to late-nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century authors in various countries, towards depictions of contemporary life and society “as they were.” In the spirit of general “realism,” Realist authors opted for depictions of everyday and banal activities and experiences, instead of a romanticized or similarly stylized presentation. Jorge Luis Borges, in an essay entitled “The Scandinavian Destiny”, attributed the earliest discovery of Realism in literature to the Northmen in the Icelandic Sagas, although it was soon lost by them along with the continent of North America.

Modernism

The movement known as English literary modernism grew out of a general sense of disillusionment with Victorian era attitudes of certainty, conservatism, and objective truth. The movement was greatly influenced by the ideas of Romanticism, Karl Marx‘s political writings, and the psychoanalytic theories of subconscious – Sigmund Freud. The continental art movements of Impressionism, and later Cubism, were also important inspirations for modernist writers.

James Joyce, 1918

Although literary modernism reached its peak between the First and Second World Wars, the earliest examples of the movement’s attitudes appeared in the mid to late 19th century. Gerard Manley Hopkins, A. E. Housman, and the poet and novelist Thomas Hardy represented a few of the major early modernists writing in England during the Victorian period.

The first decades of the 20th century saw several major works of modernism published, including the seminal short story collection Dubliners by James Joyce, Joseph Conrad‘s Heart of Darkness, and the poetry and drama of William Butler Yeats. Joyce’s magnum opus Ulysses, is arguably the most important work of Modernist literature, and has been referred to as “a demonstration and summation of the entire movement”.^[6] It is an interpretation of the Odyssey set in Dublin, and culminates in Finnegans Wake.

Virginia Woolf

Important novelists between the World Wars included Virginia Woolf, E. M. Forster, Evelyn Waugh, P.G. Wodehouse and D. H. Lawrence. Woolf was an influential feminist, and a major stylistic innovator associated with the stream-of-consciousness technique. Her 1929 novel A Room of One’s Own contains her famous dictum; “A woman must have money and a room of her own if she is to write fiction”.^[7] T. S. Eliot was the preeminent English poet of the period. Across the Atlantic writers like William Faulkner, Ernest Hemingway, and the poets Wallace Stevens and Robert Frost developed a more American take on the modernist aesthetic in their work.

Important in the development of the modernist movement was the American poet Ezra Pound. Credited with “discovering” both T. S. Eliot and James Joyce, Pound also advanced the cause of imagism and free verse. Gertrude Stein, an American expat, was also an enormous literary force during this time period, famous for her line “Rose is a rose is a rose is a rose.”

Other notable writers of this period included H.D., Marianne Moore, Elizabeth Bishop, W. H. Auden, Vladimir Nabokov, William Carlos Williams, Ralph Ellison, Dylan Thomas, R.S. Thomas and Graham Greene. However, some of these writers are more closely associated with what has become known as post-modernism, a term often used to encompass the diverse range of writers who succeeded the modernists.

Post-modern literature

The term Postmodern literature is used to describe certain tendencies in post-World War II literature. It is both a continuation of the experimentation championed by writers of the modernist period (relying heavily, for example, on fragmentation, paradox, questionable narrators, etc.) and a reaction against Enlightenment ideas implicit in Modernist literature. Postmodern literature, like postmodernism as a whole, is difficult to define and there is little agreement on the exact characteristics, scope, and importance of postmodern literature. Henry Miller, William S. Burroughs, Joseph Heller, Kurt Vonnegut, Hunter S. Thompson, Truman Capote, Thomas Pynchon.